buy custom Law Case Study essay

buy custom Law Case Study essay This case deals with Matthew, an employee at MedX Ltd, who has recently suffered his first injury at work. Matthew was hit on the head by heavy boxes that were not properly stacked, which fell from the 5th tier of the warehouses rack. Another employee using a forklift carelessly stacked these boxes. As a result, Matthew was unconscious due to the hit on his head and woke up in the hospital the next morning. Matthew was not wearing a helmet as required. His injuries consisted of bruising to his face, a cut to his head, which left a permanent scar, dislocation of his right shoulder and further injuries to his legs. On top of these injuries, he now suffers from severe headaches and has to undergo physiotherapy for his shoulder. As a result, Matthew was unable to work for four months, and is unlikely to work for another 6 months, according to his consultant. He has a wife and a daughter and has a joint mortgage on his house. Matthew would like to bring a claim for personal injury and he can do so under tort. Tort as defined by Jacqueline Martin1is a civil wrong. The law of tort protects people, their property, and their reputation. A claim will be brought if someone through his or her breach of duty of care injures you, your property or reputation. Tort is a civil private matter where the claimant seeks compensation and it has a deterrent effect as it encourages individuals to behave more responsibly which is why Matthew is bringing a civil claim, as he does not want to punish but rather seek compensation for the injuries caused. Under the law of tort, lies the tort of negligence. Negligence is whereby the breach of a duty of care results in damage to the claimant undesired by the defendant. The court needs to prove that the claimant suffered a damage; the defendant owed the claimant a duty of care and that it was breached causing the claimant reasonably foreseeable damage. The law of tort recognizes phy sical damage whether it be to him or his property and consequential economic loss. In this case Matthew has suffered physical injury and would like to seek compensation for his pain and suffering. Mathhew has been left with bruising to his face, a cut to his head, which left a permanent scar, dislocation of his right shoulder and further injuries to his legs. On top of these injuries, he now suffers from severe headaches and has to undergo physiotherapy for his shoulder He also has been subjected to consequential economic loss, as he has medical bills, physiotherapy, is unable to work which results in a loss of income for him, his family and his mortgage. Under tort of negligence, duty of care needs to be established. This can be established through the case of Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) and Caparo Industries plc v Dickman (1990). The facts of this case include a friend who bought his friend, the claimant, ginger beer. The sealed bottle had a decomposed snail and the claimant was sick due to the snail. She sued the manufacturer for negligence and she won as the judgment stated that the manufacturer owed the consumers a duty of care. This leads to what Lord Atkins stated, persos who are so closely and directly affected by my act. This is known as the neighbor principle, which defines who owes this duty of care. The caparo test is a broader way of determining duty of care and is done through the three stage test. The damage must be reasonably foreseeable; there must be a relationship of proximity between the claimant and it must be fair for the law to impose this duty of care. In this case the damage is foreseeable as stacking boxes o n high shelf with a forklift needs to be done cautiously. Proximity is the relationship between the employer and the employee which in this case is Medx Ltd and Matthew. `A breach of the duty of care is when someone fails to act as a reasonable man would. This is established through the case of Nettleship v Weston (1971) where the judge ruled that the standard of care should be of an experienced driver even though the defendant was a learner driver. This results in fairness in the courtroom as they treat everyone at the same level of expertise. When analyzing this case we can clearly see that employee x acted negligently which resulted in the accident. However, because this incident happened in the workplace, employee x may not be held liable. Negligence requires causation which is tested with the but for test. But for the defendants negligence would the claimant have suffered? In this case we look at Medx Ltd, if they had supervised the first employee, Matthew would have not been injured. The case of Barnett v Chelsea and Kensington Hospital Management Committee (1968) where three night watchmen who went to the hospital after being sick after drinking tea at work. The doctor did not see the patients and told the men to go home. After a few hours, one man died from arsenic poising and the claimant sued the hospital. However, because the death was not caused as a result of the doctors breach of duty of care, as the arsenic has spread and even if the doctor has seen him he wouldnt have been able to save him. Thus, not allowing the widow to bring a case against them. It is Medx Ltds job to run a secure and orderly system of work and had they been more careful, the injury would have not resulted. The claimant, Mathew, was partly to blame as he was not wearing his helmet as required which is also known as contributory negligence as the damages suffered were partly a result of him not wearing his helmet. But for Matthewss negligence, which in this case is him not wearing his helmet, would he have still suffered? According to his injuries which consist of a dislocated shoulder and injuries to his leg, it shows that yes he should have worn his helmet; however he would have still suffered whilst wearing it. This does not mean that Mathew cannot bring a claim, on the contrary he can, however the damages awarded to him will be apportioned by the amount he was to blame. The general rule in tort law is that a person who authorizes a tort will personally be liable for damage or harm as a result. However, vicarious liability defines the circumstances in which a person is liable for the torts of another without express authorization or raatification. The most common example of vicarious liability is the liability of an employer for the torts of his employees committed in the course of employment. Vicarious liability applies to this case which means that a person, or in this case Medx lTD is responsible for the torts of another, which is the employee who used the forklift. Medx is automatically responsible because the employee who used the forklift is working on behalf of the company, which shows a special relationship which infact he was.The employee must be acting in the case of their employment, which applies to this case as this incident happened leaving the employer liable. Even if one was to argue that the first employee who used the forklift did s o carelessly, the employer will still be held liable. An example from case law is Century Insurance v Northern Ireland Road Transport Board (1942) where the employee was delivering petrol to a garage. The employee lit a cigarette and threw the match while the petrol was being piped which resulted in an explosion leaving the employer liable for the damage caused. There are many reasons why the employer should be held liable, the first being that the company tends to have more money and will be able to pay the compensation if an injury occurs. As the company receives benefits and profits from their employees, they also have to suffer the consequences and pay for losses. The employee has the power to choose who works for them and if they choose a careless individual then they are aware of the risks that come along with that. Finally, the employer must provide a safe workplace that will increase the standards of work and training at their business. Lord Wright stated that the whole cour se of authority consistently recognizes a duty which rests on the employer, and which is personal to the employer, to take reasonable care for the safety of his workmen, whether the employer be an individual, a firm, or a company, and whether or not the employer takes any share in the conduct of the operations. The obligation is threefold, the provision of a competent staff of men, adequate material, and a proper system and effective supervision All in all Matthew can bring a claim against Medx Ltd.Vicarious liability is a legal doctrine that allocates liability for an injury to a person who did not cause the injury but who has a particular legal relationship to the person who did act negligently. In this case, MedX Ltd is liable for Matthewss injuries because even though the it was one employees careless error the company is automatically responsible under. Under tort, there is a responsibility on one person for the failure of another, with whom the person has a special relationship, for instance, doctor and patient, parent and child and in this case employer and employee, to exercise such care as a reasonably prudent person would use under similar circumstances. The most important element to establishing a case for vicarious liability is that the wrongdoer is as in this case anemployee, and that the fault was during the employee's course of employment. Matthew will receive damages in the form of compensation; however the c ourt may deduct money because of his failure to wear a helmet. Buy custom Law Case Study essay

The Meaning of Mutually Exclusive in Statistics

The Meaning of Mutually Exclusive in Statistics In probability two events are said to be mutually exclusive if and only if the events have no shared outcomes. If we consider the events as sets, then we would say that two events are mutually exclusive when their intersection is the empty set. We could denote that events A and B are mutually exclusive by the formula A ∠© B Ø. As with many concepts from probability, some examples will help to make sense of this definition. Rolling Dice Suppose that we roll two six-sided dice and add the number of dots showing on top of the dice. The event consisting of the sum is even is mutually exclusive from the event the sum is odd.  The reason for this is because there is no way possible for a number to be even and odd. Now we will conduct the same probability experiment of rolling two dice and adding the numbers shown together. This time we will consider the event consisting of having an odd sum and the event consisting of having a sum greater than nine. These two events are not mutually exclusive. The reason why is evident when we examine the outcomes of the events. The first event has outcomes of 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11. The second event has outcomes of 10, 11 and 12. Since 11 is in both of these, the events are not mutually exclusive. Drawing Cards We illustrate further with another example. Suppose we draw a card from a standard deck of 52 cards. Drawing a heart is not mutually exclusive to the event of drawing a king. This is because there is a card (the king of hearts) that shows up in both of these events. Why Does It Matter There are times when it is very important to determine if two events are mutually exclusive or not. Knowing whether two events are mutually exclusive influences the calculation of the probability that one or the other occurs. Go back to the card example. If we draw one card from a standard 52 card deck, what is the probability that we have drawn a heart or a king? First, break this into individual events. To find the probability that we have drawn a heart, we first count the number of hearts in the deck as 13 and then divide by the total number of cards. This means that the probability of a heart is 13/52. To find the probability that we have drawn a king we start by counting the total number of kings, resulting in four, and next divide by the total number of cards, which is 52. The probability that we have drawn a king is 4/52. The problem is now to find the probability of drawing either a king or a heart. Here’s where we must be careful. It is very tempting to simply add the probabilities of 13/52 and 4/52 together. This would not be correct because the two events are not mutually exclusive. The king of hearts has been counted twice in these probabilities. To counteract the double counting, we must subtract the probability of drawing a king and a heart, which is 1/52. Therefore the probability that we have drawn either a king or a heart is 16/52. Other Uses of Mutually Exclusive A formula known as the addition rule gives an alternate way to solve a problem such as the one above. The addition rule actually refers to a couple of formulas that are closely related to one another. We must know if our events are mutually exclusive in order to know which addition formula is appropriate to use.

Modern computer games can have a negative effect on the way young Essay

Modern computer games can have a negative effect on the way young people think and behave - Essay Example Children keep playing games till late in the night as a result of which they are not able to get up for the school in the morning in time. They arrive late at school and are preoccupied with the thoughts of the game. As a result of this, they are not able to pay attention at the lecture. This reflects in their poor academic performance. Students’ interest in the studies is also marred because they find the real life very uninteresting, unattractive, and boring compared to the fantasy world of gaming. Violent computer games have a tendency to make young players violent. Computer games diffuse the sensibility of the players over the passage of time. Murder, rape, bullying, racism, drug trafficking, and other different forms of violence that seem obviously condemnable in the real life become norms in the world of gaming. â€Å"Rather than just passively watching a rated-R violent movie, when kids play a game, they are one of the main characters† (John, 2013). Many young players are radically transformed into potential criminals before they can even realize the harm that has been done to them by gaming. Modern computer games have a huge role in creating negative stereotypes about gender. Women in the computer games are portrayed as objects of sex. The bodily features of the female characters in games are enhanced so as to give them perfect and ideal look to entice the young players. Many games require the male characters to seduce the female characters into different kinds of acts of fraud, adultery, and violence. For growing children raised in an otherwise controlled and regulated environment, computer games portray a world where there is a lot to explore in terms of freedom, and yet all of that is based on fantasy and is fake. Particularly the less conscientious and less agreeable children become hostile as a result of playing computer games (MNT, 2010). To conclude, modern computer games have a lot of

Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 16

Music - Essay Example The attractiveness of the melodies and careful incorporation of romantic sounds largely and continuously changes the mood of the listener to a more passionate frame of mind. Capriccio is definitely a song that I would love to continuously play when I want to relax my mind. The music, which is played by trumpet, piano and baritones, is expressively turned with great performance straight from the vocal part. The music literally raises tremendous memories of the autumn season regardless of how far the season could be through its expressive simultaneous performance of the musical instruments and the vocal part, which remains, breathtaking and propulsive throughout the song. The song remains one of the greatest arrangements of the first brass quintet that is deliberate and harmonious that describes the romantic melancholy of the autumn season. Autumn is a song that one can repeatedly listen to just to remind the listener of the great and beautiful memories of the autumn season. This song is plainly a beautiful performance that is incorporated with much intimacy and erotic smouldering that worth the occasional listening. The artistical blend of tenor and trombone and strings and the vocal part confirms the sweet musical combination that originates from the song. The variations of the strings and the tenor trombones arouses the listeners feelings and emotions thus compelling the listener to listen more and more with a thrilling feeling and emotions. Concerto is a song that will continue ringing into the ears and head of the listener even if it is not playing due to its melodious tunes. This is a song that I would heartily recommend to be one of the greatest jazz ever since because of the way it is wonderfully expressed with powerful movements of the artists. It undoubtedly stirs up the listener with its classical combination of guitars and the trombone which turns it to be a pacesetter in the innovative standard of jazz. Naked as a Jaybird

Criminology in the Future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Criminology in the Future - Essay Example As criminals become more sophisticated in their use of technology, forms of crime committed by them also become increasingly complex and difficult to understand and manage. Thus police and security officials must stay current in their knowledge and understanding of emerging crime, and both well resourced and expert regarding their own technological capabilities (p.36). Schmalleger (2012, Chapter 13) considered technology to be one of the causes of new forms of crime, since it facilitates new forms of criminal behavior. In his Chapter 13, Schmalleger (2012) named several types of cybercrimes, including crimes requiring use of modern technology, such as identity theft. All of these types of crimes arose out of technological innovations. However, criminal justice system has been revolutionized too since the 1970’s, all due to new technologies (Peterson & Leggett, 2007, p.621). Modern technology has revolutionized the criminal justice system. DNA testing by forensic biologists has become crucial in many capital offenses, as it exonerated many innocent defendants and eliminated blind faith in the criminal justice system (Petherick, Turvey & Ferguson, 2010, p.309). In 1990, the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) was established in order to gather DNA of all convicted felons (Peterson & Leggett, 2007, p.635 - 636). Use of computers has been crucial in fighting crime as well. In the 1980’s, first computerized databases of forensic evidence were established (Peterson & Leggett, 2007, p.630). Database forensics evolved, and soon became crucial in fighting cybercrimes (Khanuja & Adane, 2011, p.170). More subfields evolved. Forensic toxicology enables testing of drugs and other chemical compounds found on the crime scene (Petherick, Turvey & Ferguson, 2010, p.432). Other forensic scientists conduct fire debris analysis, which is again a chemical compound analysis (Petherick, Turvey & Ferguson, 2010, p.434). Trace evidence analysis

Brother-Sister Marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt

Brother-Sister Marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt Was it common to find brother-sister marriages in Graeco-Roman Egypt? What is the Evidence for this? This essay will be focusing on brother-sister marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt, and the evidence that we have for it through papyri sources. Although inter-family marriages are not common today, they were certainly practised during Graeco-Roman Egypt. The aim of this essay is to high-light the reasons why such marriages occurred and also, provide evidence of such marriages by means of papyri letters, contracts and documents that was saved from the period. Furthermore, this paper is going to present ideas about incest, and whether or not brother-sister marriages were accepted by society, who can marry, and theories for inter-marriage. During the Roman Egypt period, a census was orchestrated every 14 years, in order to take a household count, and to control taxes. Today, only 172 legible census reports remain, and historians and papyrologists have used this information to analyse the lives of the Graeco-Roman Egypt citizens. This analysis and papyri evidence, and also the works of notable anthropologists, historians and papyrologists, has helped to answer and understand this argument today. Background and Origins of Brother-Sister marriage Nearly everybody in Roman Egypt was married at some point in their lives. Girls in Roman Egypt were expected to be married as young as 12, and definitely by their mid 20s. In Graeco Roman Egypt, marriage laws were different and confusing amongst each society. Marriages were performed under contracts, and for most marriages, there were no age restrictions, unlike today. The strangest element of Graeco-Roman Egypt was that there was no law against close-kin marriages. In fact, brothers and sisters often married as was practiced throughout the previous generations. Evidence for this came from the Roman period through papyri and census returns. It was believed that before the Roman period, women were the inheritors of the land and in order to keep it in the family, the inheritor would have had to marry her brother.The Romans prohibited this custom and would often confiscate the estate if such a marriage took place. However, this law did not apply for Egyptians. For many societies today, it is considered normal to avoid sexual relationships between full brother and sister. However, in the Mediterranean world, such as in the Greek and Roman societies, close kin marriages such as cousin-cousin or even uncle-niece marriages were accepted and encouraged. Brother-Sister marriages originated from the Egyptian tradition of â€Å"Royal incest† which was practised in Egypt by the Pharaohs as far back as 2000BC. According to anthropologist ÄÅ'erny, brother-sister marriages in the royal family were very frequent. For example, the marriage of brother and sister, Isis and Osiris, was seen as divine incest to avoid outsiders. Other Royal marriage amongst brother and sister was that during the Ptolemy Era in Egypt. Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIV were married and she did bore his offspring. It is believed one of the explanations for these Royal marriages was a â€Å"strategy to avoid splitting up of property†or to maintain â€Å"ethnic political status† of the Greeks in Egypt. Although marriage between brother-sister was frequent within the royal family and in Graeco Roman Egypt during the second century CE, it was common for husbands to call their wives ‘sister. This is however not strong enough evidence to ce rtify brother-sister marriage. The laws for marrying brothers and sisters were different in each country. In Ancient Greece, Athenians were allowed to marry half siblings if they were from the same father but different mother whereas Spartans were allowed to marry half siblings from the same mother but different father. In Egypt it is argued to be customary to marry brother and sister. Greek King Ptolemy II continued this custom and married his sister Arsinoe which violated his native Macedonian custom. This started a ‘trend as the next seven of the eleven Greek kings of Egypt married their sisters. Full brother and sister marriage or â€Å"incestuous marriages† is believed to be a regular practise in Graeco Roman Egypt and it took place mainly amongst the elite population. The marriages were genuine, not just for bureaucratic reasons. Many sociologists find this hard to comprehend without returning to the taboo on incest. Evidence of the marriages was first noticed in papyri dating from as early as the first century CE. Although brother-sister marriage would be deemed incestuous today, evidence appearing in papyri shows that brother-sister marriages were socially and legally accepted at the time. This can be seen from official census returns which shows that a large percentage of the marriages were between brother and sister.However, as stated before, attention should be taken when interpreting the papyri. Private letters which were amongst the papyri found in the Fayyum area of Egypt, showed the terms ‘brother and ‘sister in letters between husbands and wives. This nevertheless, should not be taken as literally. Most of the papyri documenting these marriages originate from the Fayyum and according to Hopkins; the women are documented as being â€Å"wife and sister from the same father and the same mother† which â€Å"leaves little room for ambiguity†. Perhaps brother-sister marriage can be due to a restriction of choice. In Roman Egypt, marriages were most likely to have been arranged and therefore, many young women ended up marrying older men or men pre-arranged through family. For Greeks and Romans in Egypt, the choice was very limited as there was the political and social status to consider. Many Greeks did marry Egyptian women however, certain laws applied when it came to status regarding children. Marrying brother and sister was seen as the ideal solution to some Greek families as it overcame the issue of a dowry or the division of family property. Inter family marriages also overcame issues of Greek racism. Sociologist Brent Shaw suggests that Greek settlers in Egypt married within the family to separate themselves from the Egyptian population and to also keep a pure blood ancestry so to avoid tax disadvantages. Despite all these reasons, most scholars agree that although practised, it is known that both Greek and Roman societies prohibited any sexual relationship between siblings. However, in most cases, Greek traditions of endogamy were pushed to the limit. It is also believed amongst scholars that although practised throughout lower and upper Egypt, in the bigger towns rather than villages, inter family marriages were more common amongst the Greek than the Egyptians. This phenomenon of endogamy in Graeco Roman Egypt could be traced to Greek Oedipal mythology, which leads us to the subject of incest. Is Brother-Sister Marriage Considered Incest? Incest refers to sexual activity between two family members and is very much a cultural taboo in most societies and holds heavy penalties. Whilst parent-children or sibling-sibling relations are illegal, other relations such as cousin-cousin may be acceptable in other societies and cultures. The practice of brother-sister marriage has never been common among any other society apart from the Graeco-Roman Egyptian society. Full brother and sister marriage was practised throughout the first three centuries after Christ. Incestuous marriage was widespread during Graeco-Roman Egypt and the evidence for this show in numerous papyri and household census returns. Anthropologist Brent Shaw states that, â€Å"the word incest is linked to moral, social and legal norms established in Graeco-Roman antiquity.† The Latin word for incest- incestum means to be ‘unclean or ‘not pure which refers more specifically to committing a forbidden act between family members. In Graeco-Roman antiquity, there was a difference as to what was considered acceptable behaviour. Roman law and social practices regarding incestuous marriage was far more intolerable than those of Greek law and practices. Shaw states that the Greeks did not have a word similar to the Latin ‘incestumuntil the arrival of Christianity to the society. This shows the differences in attitude towards brother-sister and other close kin marriages.In Greek society, close kin marriage was more acceptable and practised than it was in Roman society. This attitude shows in the story of Oedipus and other stories of the same nature. This attitude was brought over to Egypt and even continued and encouraged. Marriage between cousins and half brother/sister marriages were accepted and became the norm for the Greek population in Egypt. This caused a clash with the Roman societys ‘stringent rules towards incest. Marriages between ethnicities, for example Greek or Roman-Egyptian were however frowned upon. It is not certain whether these marriages can be considered ‘incestuous as a long history of sibling marriage existed throughout the society. To them, this was regarded as the norm and it even existed amongst Egyptian Royalty. The addition of myths and stories justified that brother-sister marriage was accepted and that incest was doubtful. Potential Theories for Inter-Marriage In Egypt, this practice was common amongst the Royal family; however it was still considered a taboo. There are no real explanations as to why they adopted these practices but sociologist Hopkins believes that there are four theories behind inter-family marriage. One factor being the high rate of mortality. Research into the demography of Graeco Roman Egypt at the time, shows that the gap between surviving siblings is so high that the â€Å"son looking for a mate must go outside the family.† Therefore, the only way to solve this was to marry within the family. However, according to the â€Å"indifference theory† by J.R. Fox, belief was that â€Å"boys and girls living and playing together from childhood showed an absence of erotic feeling towards each other†. The main point behind this theory is that â€Å"boys and girls brought up together show no desire for incest.† However in contradiction to this, there were instances of incest between siblings which links to Sigmund Freuds theory of â€Å"suppression† where â€Å"incestuous desires come from the subconscious†.This again, relates to the influences of Greek myths such as Oedipus and stories of Egyptian Gods Isis and Osiris who were brother and sister as well as husband and wife. Social Class Social status may play a part in brother-sister marriages. Those with status liked to maintain â€Å"racial purity† and this was maintained through means of close-kin marriages. The social class in Graeco-Roman Egypt was divided. The Romans and Greeks lived privileged lives whereas the Egyptians remained poor. Therefore, marriages remained within the respective societies. With respect to inheritance, sibling marriages were favoured as any land was to be distributed equally among the children. However in regards to women in Graeco-Roman Egypt, property and land was secured by marriage contracts therefore being financially protected in the event of divorce of death of a husband. Those who still inherited land were not subject to the Roman tax poll. Women who married out of the family had to take along with her property that she had inherited. Therefore, the only way to keep property within the family, even if the marriage ended in divorce or death was to marry a brother. According to Greek practices the father had the power to choose a spouse for his daughter and so, the ideal solution was to arrange brother-sister marriages so that the family will not lose property as land was very important for social status and mobility, and was used for financial gain. As girls married young in Graeco-Roman Egypt, it was fairly easy to influence these marriages. Papyri Evidence of Brother-Sister Marriage Evidence for such marriages comes from the census household returns. However, the evidence can be seen as biased to the richer population as their papers would have been better preserved compared to those of the poor Egyptians. The census was conducted every 14 years between the years 19 C.E. and 257 C.E. Out of 172 of the legible census returns, between 15-21 per cent was marriage between brother and sister. 12 per cent of these marriages were between full brother and sister. Here are the papyri evidence for brother-sister marriage, which comes in the form of letters, wedding invitations, marriage contracts and birth registrations: Registering the birth of a son P.Oxy 2858 To Agathodaimon and Herakleidesscribes of the metropolis, from Kephalas son of Heron son of Theon and from his wife who is sister of the same father and of the same mother,Didumewe register the son born to us, Didumos. We deposit a notification of his birth. This is a document registering the birth of a son. The parents are citizens of the Metropolis Arsinoe. This was a privileged status and their reference of being husband and wife as well as brother and sister was necessary to identify themselves. Here is another example of a brother-sister couple registering the birth of their child: Apynchis and Tapasis, his sister-wife, registering their eight year old daughter 14 February 185 AD To Hermophilos, royal scribe of the Arsinoite nome. Herakleides division, from Aphynchis, son of an unknown father and his mother Tapholemis, and from his sister Tapasis, born from the same mother who is also his wifewe register our daughter Taesis, who was born to us both and is now eight years old The next papyri source comes from two parents who were also children of a brother-sister marriage. This papyri shows two generations of brother-sister marriages, therefore proving that it did occur and that it was common and accepted in society. P.Tebt.320 To Sarapionand Serenusexamining magistrates, from Eudaimon, son of Heron son of Souchas, his mother being Herons sister Thermoutharion and from his wife Sarapias who is his sister of the same father and of the same mother, both of metropolitan status Hopkins suggests that brother-sister marriage was due to parents wanting to save the expense of their daughters dowry. However, he also states that this was not an advantage in means of wealth as outside marriages could potentially bring in the same amount of wealth in terms of inheritance. Some Egyptians just chose to believe that brother-sister marriage would result in an economical advantage. This papyri is an example of a marriage settlement between brother and sister, where a dowry was specified. This proves that as well as this being a brother-sister marriage, the brother/husband also received a dowry from her, perhaps paid by their father. BGU 183; Mitteis, Chrestomathie 313 Horos son of Tesenophisaged about forty three years with a scar on the left calf agrees with his own sister by the same father and the same mother who is also his wife, Eriea, aged about thirty five years with a scarthat he as party to agreement has hereby received from hera dowry of silverto the value of twenty drachmae. Let the married pair live together without recrimination just as they have done before, and Horos is to provide all necessities and clothing befitting to a wedded wifeIf Horos leaves her, then he as party to the agreement is to return the dowry within thirty days of being asked for it Other evidence of brother-sister marriage comes in the form of a divorce contract. Even though the couple are brother and sister, sometimes, the marriage does not work out, and therefore ends in divorce. Here is an example of this: P.Mil.Vogl.85, AD 138 Copy of a contract;Kronion son of Kronion aged about 54 years with a scar on his left forearm and his ex wife Taorsenouphis, who is also his sister of the same father and of the same mother, aged 50 years without distinguishing marksagree with each other that their life together has been brought to an endand it is agreed that each of them may administer his own affairs as he chooses and Taorsenouphis can live together with another man without reprisal of any kind Brother-Sister marriages were seen as common and not abnormal, therefore they were celebrated openly and guests were invited by invitation: P.Oxy.524 Dionysius invites you to dinner at the marriage of his own children (teknà ´n)tomorrow, that is the 30th at the 9th hour P.Oxy. III Herais invites you to dinner at the marriage of her children at home tomorrow, that is the fifth, at the 9th hour. These wedding invitations clearly show that brother-sister marriage was in fact common and accepted by society. They also provide proof that such practices did occur. Invitations were usually delivered by hand the day before the wedding.> Private letters between husbands and wives may provide evidence of brother-sister marriage, but they cannot be seen as sufficient proof as calling someone ‘brother or ‘sister was seen as a term of endearment. There are archives of letters between husband and wife using these terms of endearment, however, the next source is of a letter from a husband to his wife and sister: P.Oxy.528 Serenus to Isidora, his sister and wife, many greetings. Before all else I pray that you are wellI want you to know that ever since you left me I have been grieving, weeping by night and lamenting by dayYou sent me letters which would have moved a stone, so much did your words affect me. Do let me know if you are coming back or not. This letter shows that although they were brother and sister, they were also affectionate as husband and wife. Love was an evident emotion in brother-sister marriage as well as in outside marriage. This goes to show that perhaps the children were not forced to marry but chose to marry out of love for their sibling. Evidence for love, comes in the form of this love letter, perhaps from a wife to her husband: P.Oxy.3059 Didyme to Apollonius, her brother and sun greetings.Know that I do not see the sun,Since I do not see you;I have no sun but you The archive of Apollonios the strategos and Aline, AD 113-120 This was an archive of over 200 Greek papyri, belonging to the wealthy Apollonios family who were landowners in the Hermopolite nome. Apollonios the strategos was part of the highest office in the bureaucracy of Graeco-Roman Egypt. Apollonios was married to Aline who was believed to also be his sister. The couple frequently wrote letters as Apollonios spent most of his time away from his family, addressing each other as ‘brother and ‘sister.> Aline to Apollonios C.Pap.Jud.II 436 (September AD 115) Aline to Apollonios her brother, many greetings. I am very worried about you, because of events that are said to be taking place and because you left me suddenlyPlease, then, keep yourself safe and do not put yourself in dangerTo Apollonios my brother. This could be proof that they were brother and sister, as well as husband and wife. However, due to the frequent use of ‘brother and ‘sister during the time, it is not certain whether this can be used as real evidence. We now return to the question being posed of this paper; â€Å"Was it common to find brother-sister marriages in Graeco-Roman Egypt?† The answer is indeed, yes, it was common to find these marriages. Brother-sister marriages were considered a norm for Graeco-Roman Egypt as it was practised* by ancestors before them. We also know that these marriages were sanctioned in traditional myths such as, the brother-sister marriage of Isis and Osiris. The Oedipus myth also allowed this practise to be justified. These marriages were not classed as ‘incestuous as it was very normal and traditional to marry within the family. Inheriting land and property also played a part in making these marriages common, as families wanted their land to be kept within the family. From the surviving evidence, we can see that people openly stated in letters and documents that they were ‘husband and wife of the same father and of the same mother. And wedding invitations were even sent to guests, inviting them to celebrate the family wedding. It is fair to say that these marriages were accepted. Brother-sister marriages were more common amongst the Greeks and Egyptians rather than the Roman citizens, as it was customary in Greek and Egyptian cultures. The genetic effects amongst offspring of these marriages are un-known as nothing in papyri states that family marriages links to this. However, considering some families only married within the family for several generations, it may be safe to say that there is no direct link between sibling marriage and genetic defects, which is probably why it was more acceptable during that period. References Bagnall, R.S. and B. Frier (1994) â€Å"The Demography of Roman Egypt† (Cambridge) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Huebner,S.R (2007) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† (Columbia) Huebner,S.R (2007) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt†(Columbia) Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Bagnall, R.S. and B. Frier (1994) â€Å"The Demography of Roman Egypt† (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Endogamy-marriage within a particular society or tribe or ancestry J. Modrzejewski,(2005) â€Å"Greek law in the Hellenistic Period: Family and Marriage† (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Fox,J, R. (1962) â€Å"Sibling Incest†, British Journal of Sociology Vol. 13, No.2 pp.128-150 (Blackwell Publishing) Fox,J, R. (1962) â€Å"Sibling Incest†, British Journal of Sociology Vol. 13, No.2 pp.128-150 (Blackwell Publishing) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Verb: ‘He practises the piano every day noun: ‘These practices have all but died out

Cancer Essay -- essays research papers

Prostate cancer is cancer of the prostate gland. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system. This gland is locates inside the body at the base of the penis, just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. It is composed of the glandular and fibrous tissue enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue. The prostate is in the shape of a donut and about the size of a walnut. It surrounds the first inch or so of the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder. Normal functions of the prostate depend on the presence of the male hormone testosterone, which is produced by the testes. The prostate produces semen, the thick, whitish fluid that carries sperm. Cancer of the prostate has become the number one cancer in American men. In the United States, approximately 1 in every 11 men will develop prostate cancer during his lifetime. Prostate cancer becomes increasingly common with each decade of life. Over 80 percent of all cases are diagnosed in men over 65. The incidence of prostate cancer increased 47 percent from 1973 to 1987, about a 2.6 percent increase each year. It is estimated that 106,00 new cases of prostate cancer were diagnosed in the US during the 1990. Black men in the US have the highest incidence of prostate cancer in the world. Little is known about the cause of prostate cancer, and it is seldom possible to explain why a man has developed this disease. Scientists believe that cancer of the prostate develops over a period of many years as a result...